Linking words are just that: words that link. They are a type of cohesive device, so they can be likened to glue because they join thoughts together. They link words, phrases, clauses, sentences, and even paragraphs to show how thoughts are related. When used well, they contribute to delivering a coherent message, one that is well-organised and easily understood in its totality.
At C1 and C2 level your written and verbal communication should be organised very well and be extremely coherent by using a range of cohesive devises appropriately, including linking words. Those who have mastered organising their discourse well with just the right amount of cohesion and flexibility will have brought their performance from B2 to C2. So when revising your writing ask yourself the following:
Are you using cohesive devices? Are you using them enough? Are you using too many? Are you using a range? Are you using then appropriately?
Now let’s talk about one cohesive device in particular: the adverb hence. It is a linking adjunct which, when used, can change the meaning of your discourse. Please compare the following:
1. It was raining, and Anne had her favourite umbrella; nevertheless, she caught the bus.
2. It was raining, and Anne had her favourite umbrella; hence, she caught the bus.
In the first sentence Anne caught the bus even though she had an umbrella. So, she could have walked if she wanted to; the reader can infer that maybe it wasn’t raining so heavily, and her umbrella would have sufficed. In the second sentence, however, Anne caught the bus as a consequence of the rain. The reader is able to assume here that the umbrella was not sufficient for protection from the amount of rain. From this very same example we can see how hence can show that something happens as a consequence of something else—equal to saying ‘for this reason.’ Here are more examples:
It’s been raining for days, hence the cold.
It’s been raining for days; as a result, it is cold.
In addition to being a linking word, the adverb hence can be a pro-form (a form that substitutes another form) in the place of ‘from this/that moment in time' or 'from this/that place.’
Used as ‘from this point in time’ can look something like this: ‘A few day hence a new law will be enforced: no smoking in all public areas.’ Whereas for ‘from this place’ you are most likely to see it being used in older text, such as in the King James Bible: ‘And the Lord said unto Moses, Yet will I bring one plague more upon Pharaoh, and upon Egypt; afterwards he will let you go hence: when he shall let you go, he shall surely thrust you out hence altogether’ (Exodus 11:1).
So, the possible meanings are three? How can this be?
At the foundation of the meaning of the word hence is the idea that it indicates a position from which something comes. From what has been discussed above of these three meaning, I am sure you can now see how they are connected: they all refer back to a position from where something comes. The position can be from a place, from a point in time, or from a previous circumstance. Today, in modern usage, you will find many more examples of the latter—hence as ‘from this fact’, 'for this reason.' This doesn’t mean you should limit yourself to this use. I would like to encourage you to use hence as ‘from this/that place’ and ‘from this/that point in time’, too. Remember also that if you choose not to use hence, it will not go away—eventually you’ll hear others using it, and you may come across this adverb when reading; so, best to know what it means.
To further your understanding of the meanings and functions of hence, I thought it best to present some corpora—excerpts from realia. Therefore, following each short explanation of its usage in sense and grammar, you will find examples of hence found in Time Magazine and various television programmes.
Let’s begin with hence as ‘for this reason’, linking what follows back to an idea previously expressed. This adverb can be at the beginning of a clause. (For more information about clauses, please read my post on colons.) The clause introduced by hence can be at the beginning of a sentence or internal. It is internal when it is before another independent clause introduced by a coordinating conjunction, such as ‘and.’ Either way, it is usually, but not necessarily, set off with commas to show that it refers to the whole sentence or clause. Here are some samples:
At the beginning of a sentence
- Finally, both Francis and I knew we would have careers even if we failed, so we weren't desperate. Hence we were willing to trust that an idea that was only 90% certain was worth taking a chance on. — Michael Lemonick, 2003, ‘You Have To Be Obsessive’, TIME Magazine
- The DSM lists the criteria used by mental-health professionals to make their various diagnoses, from " mild mental retardation " (the first listing) to " personality disorder not otherwise specified " (the last); there are more than 350 in all. Hence this 943-page doorstop is one of the most important books you've never heard of. — John Cloud, 2003, ‘How We Get Labeled’, TIME Magazine
- Many are the wonders of modern tourism—economical packages, efficient tours, reliably standardized accommodations, every detail adjusted to make the traveler feel at home while abroad. The drawback, of course, is that it's so bland and formulaic (museum, monument, gift shop, beverage! Repeat!). Hence there are vagabond travelers who remain determined to avoid all that—to seek out destinations that offer interest and beauty but don't seem geared for the masses. — Heather Won Tesoriero, 2002, ‘Northern Exposure’, TIME Magazine
- Your mortgage payment is one hour late. Hence, Ebiffnezer Tannen is foreclosing and sending you to debtor's prison! — ‘Dickens of a Christmas’, 1991, Back to the Future [Television series]
- Every Ben Tennyson throughout space and time has had his fate intertwined with that of the Omnitrix. You, however, have not. Hence you are being targeted. — ‘And Then There Were None’, 2014, Ben 10: Omniverse [Television series]
- Your honor, I am the one who encouraged my client to accept the blame for the attack. Hence, I would like to now argue that my client is a victim of ineffective assistance of counsel. — ‘It Had to Be You’, 2014, Drop Dead Diva [Television series]
Before an independent clause after a conjunction
- A lot of the land they own is in the north of Wales and in romantic landscapes, landscapes which intellectuals associated with the sublime and the glorious, and hence you have hill farms and bits of Snowdonia and mountains. — ‘Farms’, 2014, National Treasures of Wales [Television series]
- You shed no light on a key reason people eat—to satisfy emotional needs—and hence did not advise your readers on how to deal with that problem.— 2003, ‘Letters’, TIME Magazine
Additionally, hence as in ‘for this reason’ can also be found before a noun phrase (see my post on ‘Pink is in’ for more talk on noun phrases) and should be set off by a comma or dash from the rest of the sentence which precedes it, creating a purposeful pause. Here are some examples:
- Whether an outfit is priced at $300 or $30, what's remarkable about mainstream designers' and retailers' maternity wear is that it's virtually indistinguishable from their regular collections—hence the confusion at Glow Girl and in countless maternity sections stocked with crisp blouses, business suits, cargo pants and halter tops. — Amanda Bower, 2003, ‘Expect the Best’, TIME Magazine
- The shape is fresh and functional, " says Sarah Easley, co-owner of the hip Manhattan clothing store Kirna Zabete, which, along with specialty lingerie shops like Agent Provocateur, is selling a lot of panties. The trend takes its cue from sports, especially surfing—hence the low-sitting bikini-cut look. — Isabel C. Gonzalez, 2003, ‘As Thongs Fade, Briefs are Back’, TIME Magazine
- Shark attacks have been on the rise in recent years. But for all the terror they stir, the numbers remain minuscule. Worldwide, there were 79 unprovoked attacks last year, compared with 58 in 1999 and 54 the year before. Two-thirds were in U.S. waters. The higher numbers may reflect more surfers, boogie-boarders and open-water swimmers—more people splashing around, hence more attacks. — Terry McCarthy, 2001, ‘Why Can't We Be Friends?’ , TIME Magazine
- Hey, nobody ever lost money selling kids new ways to break their neck—hence the K2 Evolution Four kickboard ($199), this summer's answer to the Razor Scooter. The kickboard is an unholy combination of skateboard and scooter geared toward stunts. Safety-minded kids may prefer simply to play in traffic. — Lev Grossman, 2001, ‘Tech Briefs’, TIME Magazine
- I do still occasionally noodle around playing Elizabethan ballads on my soprano recorder. But I do this in private because the recorder hasn't really been a "party" instrument since about 1685—hence my renewed interest in the piano. — Sarah Vowell, 2000, ‘Instant Piano for the Busy and Lazy’, TIME Magazine
- Did you guys talk today? No. She's not answering my calls or texts, hence the desperate showing up at your house. Well, she's not here. — ‘The Doability Doctrine’, 2015, Madam Secretary [Television series]
- Probably pierced the carotid artery, hence the amount of blood. — Episode #7.11, 2005, Bad Girls [Television series]
Conversely, hence as a cohesive device to refer back to either a time or a place with the meaning ‘from this/that time or place’ is not positioned before the sentence, clause, or phrase that is modifies. It is used in the same location of its adverbial synonyms, ‘from this/that time’ or ‘from here.’ This also means that when hence is used with this meaning, there is no intervening comma, ever. Take a look here:
As ‘from this position in time’
- The New York Times in 1960 predicted " a flourishing civilization on the moon twenty or thirty years hence. — Rebecca Winters, 2003, ‘What's Always Next?’ , TIME Magazine
- But as the postelection turmoil escalated, it became clear that it was the story of the year and more: whoever was the survivor would be not only the next President but a symbol of a historic showdown that would be remembered and cited a century hence. — Walter Isaacson, 2000, ‘Year of the Survivor’, TIME Magazine
- Must all end in blood? Aye... all must end in blood. One week hence, on the day of Oliver's glory, wait for me at the sea. — Episode #1.4, 2008, The Devil's Whore [Television series]
- Three days hence, you will be taken to the gallows at Newgate where Mr. Berry will deliver you from this life and into the next. — ‘In My Protection’, 2013, Ripper Street [Television series]
- Now I will see this marriage consummated, lest there be any doubt, any confusion, weeks or months hence. — ‘The Banquet of Chestnuts’, 2013, The Borgias [Television series]
- And what better way to seal an alliance between friends? I suggest a meeting ten days hence at Dover Castle. Your Majesty will come in person? — ‘Diplomacy’, 2015, Versailles [Television series]
As ‘from this place’
- Henry: My dearest love, Duncan comes here tonight. And when goes hence? Tomorrow as he purposes. — ‘Birnam Wood’, 2005, Slings and Arrows [Television series]
- Shall we be gone? The moon shines fair, you may away by night. I'll tell your wives of your departure hence. I'm afraid my daughter will run mad. — ‘Henry IV, Part 1’, 2012, The Hollow Crown [Television series]
Now do you have a clearer idea of what hence means and how to use it?
If so, great—use it! And a month or so hence, you’ll have mastered it.
If not, don’t worry. Just re-read each excerpt above; reflect on the meaning of hence in each context, and take note on how each occurrence is used within or across sentences to get a better idea of where to place it.
Connecting and organizing your discourse with a variety of cohesive devises in the right way is what will help bring you from B2 to C2, a proficient user of English.
Would you like to adopt another way to create cohesion in your writing or speaking tasks?
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