There are linguistic devices you can use to improve the flow of your spoken and written discourse, bringing your performance from B2 to C2. One strategy is to avoid repetition. This can be done in many ways—one is by using pro-forms.
What are pro-forms? Personally, when I am tackling terminology, I like breaking the words down to better understand the concept represented. While I was researching pro-forms, I decided to check the etymology of pro- and, as I had expected, its origin, which is Latin, holds the meaning ‘instead of’. This makes sense when you understand what grammatical pro-forms are: words used in the place of other words, also called forms. I can confirm this logic even further by bringing to your attention that the word ‘pronoun’ is pro- + noun and pronouns substitute nouns. Therefore, simply put, pro-forms are words that substitute for other words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.* We make these substitutions to avoiding being repetitive. Could the audience be left not knowing what you are referring to? What pro-forms replace can be understood from the context. They can refer to something which has already been mentioned or will be mentioned further along. In fact, the connections pro-forms make not only minimise repetition but also create cohesion—linking elements within a discourse. (See my post ‘Are you connecting?’ for more on cohesion.)†
Now, why do we substitute? As I just discussed above, it’s to minimise repetition. Try telling a story without pro-forms, and you’ll quickly notice how distracting, unnatural, and even condescending repetitions can sound. Here below there is a text I would like you to read. Be warned: it will sound like a broken record. The underlined parts are those that need to be substituted. Now please read the following out loud:
Hanna knew that Samuel was special. Hanna knew Samuel was special because in normal circumstances Samuel would not be with Hanna. Therefore, Hanna was grateful to have Samuel. Before Hanna and Samuel were together, Hanna only looked after Hanna. Once Hanna was with Samuel, Hanna looked after Samuel, and Samuel looked after Hanna. For example, if Hanna cleaned the house, Samuel would clean the house too. Hanna and Samuel lived in Salem, and Hanna and Samuel worked in Salem for 40 years. During the 40 years, Hanna and Samuel met Hanna and Samuel’s friends, and Hanna and Samuel have a close relationship with Hanna and Samuel’s friends even today. (109 words)
Terrible, isn’t it?
Now read the same information with pro-forms:
Hanna knew that Samuel was special. She knew so because in normal circumstances he would not be with her. Therefore, she was grateful to have him. Before they were together, she only looked after herself. Once together, they looked after each other. For example, if she cleaned the house, he would do so too. They lived in Salem and (ellipsis) worked there for 40 years. During that time, they met their friends whom they have a close relationship with even today. (81 words)
Better, isn’t it?
Did you notice that the second version is also shorter? Note also that repetition can also be avoided or minimised by adopting ellipsis (omission). I’ll get back to you about that in another post.
From this point onwards I am sure you can grasp the idea of what a pro-form is and what it does. Once you have understood many of its various forms and functions after seeing a number of examples, you’ll be able to spot them out yourself and use them. So, let’s get you more acquainted...
The most obvious pro-form is a pronoun. You can now appreciate that the word 'pronoun' itself is a dead give-away: pro- + noun. There are a few subcategories of pronouns. I’ll give you some examples of some in action, creating connection and avoiding repetition. I'll also show you some examples from other subcategories of pro-forms. The underlined elements are those which the pro-form refers to—what it is substituting.
Personal pronouns
When I saw Jack and Jill, I waved at them.
Reflexive pronouns
The first time Mara really started looking after herself was when she got the results from her blood test—high cholesterol.
Demonstrative pronouns
All the books on my shelf are up for grabs. Take what you want. Those that are left, I’ll donate to the local library.
Relative pronouns
These hold the place of the subject or object of the subordinate clause, relative clause, in a complex sentence.
What should you do with an old washing machine which keeps breaking down?
Pro-adjectives
As the term implies, they are pro-forms that substitute adjectives.
At the end of the lesson most of the students were tired, but I wasn’t.
Water slides are fun; so are rollercoasters.
Pro-adverb
Another pro-form is a pro-adverb which takes the place of adverbials.
We went to Toto’s for a pizza last night, but it was quite pricey. Don’t think I’ll be going there again!
I looked at the pile of ironing and felt overwhelmed, so I decided to do this household chore while listening to one of my favourite radio programmes to easy my pain. Thus did I manage to get the tedious job done. (‘Thus’ has the same meaning as ‘in this way’.)
Pro-verb
Don't get confused with 'proverb'—that’s different. A pro-verb substitutes for a verb or predicate.
Sammy didn’t like his new haircut, but Delilah did!
Jonah deals with his problems by avoiding them as much as he can—and so do I.
Peter enjoys fishing, and Andrew does too.
Most people can’t stand too much noise. Neither can I.
Who should be concerned about the quality of education? Everybody should.
If you’re taking an IELTS or Cambridge Exam, for example, you can improve your score when you show you have a good control of cohesive devises, such as pro-forms. Examiners will be looking at how you connect your ideas in your speaking and writing tests. In other words, employing pro-forms correctly in your discourse as a cohesive devise is one way to bring you from B2 to C2, a proficient user of English.
A good takeaway after reading this post is to practice your awareness of pro-forms. Do so by picking them out when reading or listening and then using one or two more when you’re speaking or writing. Ask yourself ‘Am I being repetitive?’ and ‘Which other words can I use to stop being so repetitive?’
Would you like to learn another way to create cohesion in your speaking or writing?
Request a free 20-second takeaway. Please contact me. I will post one for you.
*D. Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Blackwell Publishers, Massachusetts, 1997, p. 310
†J. Sinclair, G. Fox, S. Bullon, R. Krishnamurthy, E, Manning, J. Todd, … D. Yuill eds., English Grammar Helping Learners with real English, HarperCollins Publishers, London, 1990, pp. 385–397